Figure 5 Temporal production of p- HPA and p -cresol in mutant and wild-type strains using NMR. A) NMR spectra showing an overview of the relative levels of tyrosine, p-HPA and p-cresol from all replicates and strains tested over a 24-hour time period, the colours define the 44 samples used in the time course experiment, over four strains and media controls. T = time of sampling (hours post inoculation). B) The relative production of p-HPA by mutant and patent strains over a 24-hour time period. C) The relative production of p-cresol by the parent strains over a 24-hour time period. (The levels of p-cresol Selleckchem INCB018424 by the ΔhpdC mutants were below

the limits of detection by NMR and were not plotted). Discussion In this study we show two independent methods for measuring levels of p-cresol from C. difficile grown in vitro. NMR spectroscopy and gas chromatography (zNose™) provide a quantitative means of measuring the relative and temporal production of p-cresol by C. difficile. This revealed that that p-cresol is only produced from the conversion of tyrosine in minimal click here media. indicating that p-cresol production may be linked to the limitation of nutrients, or nutrient stress. However, the successful conversion of p-HPA to p-cresol in rich media suggests the limiting step in the cascade is the utilisation

of tyrosine. Rich media may contain a constituent(s) such as glucose, which

inhibits the conversion from tyrosine to p-HPA. Gene inactivation mutations in the hpdB, hpdC and hpdA genes in strains 630Δerm and R20291 revealed the complete absence of p-cresol production in all mutants tested, confirming the role of the putative decarboxylase operon in p-cresol production in C. difficile. The build up of p-HPA observed in the www.selleckchem.com/products/baricitinib-ly3009104.html hpdBCA operon mutants confirm that C. difficile converts tyrosine to p-HPA, rather than using an exogenous source of p-HPA and this conversion is significantly more efficient in R20291. With the exception of Clostridium scatologenes, the hpdBCA operon appears absent from the genomes of other sequenced anaerobic bacteria Digestive enzyme [18]. The production of p-cresol coupled with its ability to produce tissue-damaging toxins may explain why C. difficile is almost unique among pathogens in causing antibiotic associated colitis. The production of p-cresol by C. difficile may provide a competitive advantage over other microorganisms during re-colonisation of the gut. If this hypothesis is true, C. difficile should itself be tolerant to the bacteriostatic properties of p-cresol. Previous studies have shown that in contrast to most other anaerobes, C. difficile is more tolerant to p-cresol [14].