6). One group containing 2 of the isolates from this study (966-08 & 1357-08), grouped with other prototypical T. gallinae isolates from GenBank and one isolate (502-08) grouped with a Simplicomonas sp. (GenBank accession HQ334182) isolated from a backyard chicken in Georgia (USA) ( Lollis et al., 2011). Phylogenetic analysis failed to resolve isolates 500-08 and 726-08 into a particular clade. GS-7340 purchase One isolate from the St. Kits outbreak (#21) grouped with the prototypical T. gallinae isolates from GenBank; whereas

the other St. Kits isolates grouped with Histomonas-like organism (GenBank accession HQ334182) found within the liver of a bobwhite quail in Georgia, USA ( Lollis et al., 2011). The changes reported in these birds are consistent with upper digestive tract lesions

reported with avian trichomonosis (Stabler, 1954 and Narcisi et al., 1991). The identification of intralesional trichomonads associated with classical lesions indicates that the birds were infected with virulent Trichomonas isolates. DNA amplification and nucleotide sequencing confirmed the presence of Trichomonas spp. in four birds in this study. Additionally, the sequence from one green-winged saltator had 100% sequence to recently described parabasalid genus, Simplicomonas ( Cepicka et al., 2010 and Lollis et al., 2011). This information suggests that Simplicomonas has similar histological morphological characteristics as Trichomonas, although lesions were

found in the liver only. Domestic pigeons selleck products (Columbia livia) are the primary host of T. gallinae. In columbids, the protozoan is transferred in the “pigeon milk” from the crop of an infected parent to the newly-hatched nestling. Sources of infection to others birds can be the water, contaminated seeds ( Stabler, 1954 and Forrester and Foster, 2008) or when avian predators (such as owl or American kestrel) feed on infected prey ( Erwin et al., 2000). The striped owl is a nocturnal medium-sized Idoxuridine raptor found in Central and South America and it primarily preys on small mammals (rats, bats and opossums) and birds (sparrows, feral doves and others) ( Sick, 1997). The American kestrel is one of the smallest raptors of the world and occurs all over the Western Hemisphere in a great variety of habitat types. In tropical areas like Brazil and, especially in the Cerrado biome, the American kestrel apparently displayed a higher consumption of insects, arthropods and occasionally avian prey ( Cabral et al., 2006). Toco Toucan (R. toco) is one of the largest frugivorous birds and it usually consumes fruits (e.g. figs), but also will eat insects, frogs, small reptiles, eggs and avian nestlings. It is found in semi-open habitats throughout a large part of central and eastern South America ( Cubas, 2007). Trichomonas-associated mortality is often attributed to esophageal obstruction by caseous masses leading to emaciation, dehydration, or asphyxiation ( Narcisi et al.