Once again, STOP-IT was employed to measure response inhibition (Verbruggen et al., 2008). The parameters, instructions, and exclusion criteria were the same as those employed in Experiment 1. Six subjects were removed because they performed in a way that did not allow valid estimates of SSRT to be obtained. Specifically, these subjects withheld their response on significantly more or less than the 50% criterion. One additional subject was selleck inhibitor removed for having considerable difficulty with the task and exhibiting an SSRT score 15.8 SDs above the mean. Altogether, data from 96 of the 106 subjects were included. Retrieval-practice performance data was lost for 18 of the 96 subjects. The remaining

78 subjects successfully retrieved 82% (SD = 13%) of the exemplars during retrieval practice, a rate very similar to that observed in Experiment 1. Hit rates for Rp+, Rp−, and learn more Nrp items and false alarm rates for lures associated with Rp and Nrp categories are shown in the top row of Table 2. To analyze recognition accuracy, d’ was computed for all three item types by calculating Zhit rate–Zfalse-alarm rate. As expected, a significant effect of retrieval practice was observed such that Rp+ items (M = 2.57, SE = .07)

were better recognized than Nrp items (M = 1.89, SE = .07), t(95) = 8.28, p < .001, d = .85. As shown in the bottom row of Table 2, d′ values were numerically lower for Rp− items (M = 1.80, SE = .08) than they were for Nrp items (M = 1.89, SE = .07). Although a paired-samples t test indicated that this difference was not statistically significant, t(95) = 1.24, p = .22, a repeated-measures ANCOVA with SSRT scores serving as a covariate—thus controlling for additional error variance—found that it was, F(1, 94) = 6.69, MSE = .24, p = .01. This finding replicates the many studies that have observed RIF using item recognition (e.g., Aslan and Bäuml, 2010, Aslan and Bäuml, 2011, Hicks and Starns, 2004, Ortega et al., 2012, Román et al., 2009, Soriano

et al., 2009 and Spitzer and Bäuml, 2007). The fact that including SSRT as a covariate had such a large effect suggests that it accounted for a large proportion of the variance in retrieval-induced forgetting, a possibility we explore more directly below. Before analyzing Org 27569 the correlation between retrieval-induced forgetting and SSRT, we computed the amount of retrieval-induced forgetting observed for each participant. As in Experiment 1, we did this by z-normalizing each participant’s retrieval-induced forgetting score relative to the mean and standard deviation of all other participants in their matched counterbalancing condition. An analysis of the resulting RIF-z scores failed to reveal evidence of significant skew (.13, SE = .25) or kurtosis (−.39, SE = .49), and these statistics did not vary significantly from those observed in Experiment 1.

Given the absence of viable environmental data within the catchment before the LACM Spill of 2009, two control methods were implemented (mining-free tributaries and floodplain depth), following other similar contaminant studies (Mackay et al., 2013, Parry, 2000 and Taylor and Hudson-Edwards, 2008). Background samples revealed that Cu levels in the channel and floodplain were higher relative to both the tributary and floodplain depth control. Furthermore, Cr in the channel and Cr and Pb in the floodplain were shown to be elevated with respect to equivalent floodplain depth Selleck ZD1839 (10–50 cm) sediment-metal

concentrations. This elevation was not supported by the tributary control, which is unusual given that this is evident in the Cu data and that Palbociclib chemical structure one would expect similarity between these two controls. The small sample size (n = 2) of the tributary control, which was a function of time and funding constraints, limits the comparative and statistical power resulting in the occurrence of a type 2 statistical error. This limitation is counteracted, however, by the use of the 19 proxy background samples taken at depth from the Saga and Inca creek floodplain systems ( Table 4), eliminating reliance on the tributary controls

as the single measure of background sediment-metal values. Comparing the results to ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000), ISQG – low guidelines and CCME (2007) Soil Guidelines revealed minor elevations of As and Cr in the channel as well as As on the floodplain surface (0–2 cm). Copper values within channel samples and floodplain Dynein surface (0–2 cm) samples exceeded ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000), ISQG – low Cu guideline, Canadian Guideline for Cu (CCME, 2007) and the ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) ISQG – high Cu guideline (Table 1 and Table 2). The application of total extractable metal concentration as a measure of contamination has been utilised in many Australian studies evaluating

the impact of mining on the environment (e.g. Gore et al., 2007, Lottermoser et al., 1999, Mudd and Patterson, 2010 and Taylor et al., 2010). It is also a recommended approach in Australian soil and sediment guidelines (e.g. ANZECC and ARMCANZ, 2000, NEPC, 1999a and NEPC, 1999b) and international guidelines (e.g. CCME, 2002, CCME, 2007 and NOAA, 1999). A growing number of studies, however, are focusing more on how metals are held within sediment, their extractability, bioaccessibility and metal speciation (Chopin and Alloway, 2007, Lui et al., 2003, Mackay et al., 2011, Noller et al., 2009, Sastre et al., 2004, Smith et al., 2009 and Taylor and Kesterton, 2002). Indeed, the ANZECC guidelines advocate trigger values for total extractable metals should be used first to assess a potential environmental problem followed by further investigation if values are found to exceed trigger values (ANZECC and ARMCANZ, 2000).

G.R. 1322/2006), based on the ratio between the volume of the discharge and the volume of the input rainfall ( Puppini, 1923 and Puppini, 1931). The storage Selleck Trametinib method connects the delay of the discharge peak with the full capacity of the basin to accumulate the incoming rainfall volume within

the hydraulic network, and it uses as main parameter the storage capacity per unit area of the basin ( Puppini, 1923 and Puppini, 1931). Aside from the rainfall patterns, the basin area and the capacity of the basin to retain or infiltrate a part of the precipitation, the delay and dispersion between the precipitation and the transit of the outflows at the outlet are due to the variety of hydraulic paths, and to the availability of volumes invaded that delays the flood wave ( Puppini, 1923 and Puppini,

1931). Given this preface, to quantify the effects of network changes we developed a new indicator named Network Saturation Index (NSI) that provide a measure of how long it takes for a designed rainfall to saturate the available storage volume. Given a designed rainfall duration and rainfall amount, we simulated a hyetograph to describe the behavior of the rainfall during time. We assume that the amount of rainfall is homogeneous over the surface, and at every time step we computed the percentage of storage volume that is filled by the rainfall. The NSI is then the first time step at which the available storage volume is 100% reached (Fig. 6). The NSI has one basic assumption, also main assumption of

the Puppini, selleck screening library 1923 and Puppini, 1931 method, that is the synchronous and autonomous filling of volumes stored in the network: the water does not flow in the channels – null slopes–, and each storage volume is considered as an independent unit that gets filled Dapagliflozin only by the incoming rainfall. With reference to the mechanisms of formation of the discharge, the idea is that in the considered morphological and drainage condition, the water flows in the channels are entirely controlled by the work of pumping stations, and we assume a critical condition where the pumps are turned off. One must note that the NSI is an index that is not meant to be read as an absolute measurement, nor with a modelistic claim, rather it is defined to compare situations derived for different network conformations. To compute the index, as in many drainage design approaches (Smith, 1993), we based the evaluation on synthetic rather than actual rainfall events, and we considered some Depth–Duration Frequency curves (DDF). A DDF curve is graphical representation of the probability that a given average rainfall intensity will occur, and it is created with long term rainfall records collected at a rainfall monitoring station. DDF curves are widely used to characterize frequency of rainfall annual maxima in a geographical area (Uboldi et al., 2014). Stewart et al. (1999) reviewed actual applications of estimates of rainfall frequency and estimation methods.

Row B, for example, refers to a period of overall disintensification, yet may have led to a reduction of ground cover by grazing. Material evidence can help to evaluate the table in one of three ways. An understanding of process geomorphology rooted in regional fieldwork allows us to judge the strength of the logical connections between the ultimate and proximate causes. Settlement surveys allow us to judge whether the distribution of abandoned fields and villages matches the spatial pattern implied by a particular row. The dating of stratified deposits produced by land degradation, if of sufficient resolution, allows us to rule out Proton pump inhibitor some of the rows.

My fieldwork did not target the historical era in particular. It aimed to recover evidence of changing land

use from the arrival of the first farmers at ca. 1000BC to the present day. One of its conclusions is that land degradation was widespread and severe at different times during the prehispanic era, with most documented examples falling between 400BC and AD1000. It demonstrates that by Conquest, Tlaxcalan farmers were familiar with the consequences of land degradation, and had devised some ways of coping with it. Agricultural terracing was one of them. Excavations at La Laguna (Borejsza et al., 2008) disentangled the sequence of construction, use, and abandonment of different generations of terracing by combining stratigraphy, artifact analysis, and dating by radiocarbon and OSL. The terraces had no relation to the main occupations selleck of the site, which are Formative (Borejsza and Carballo, in press). These resulted, however, in the exposure of tepetates, which for the next millennium remained sparsely vegetated and developed new soil profiles only in areas

of moderate gradient. The slopes were restored to cultivation when tepetates were buried under the SPTBN5 fills of stone-faced terraces during the Middle or Late Postclassic. They probably belonged to barrios of the Otomi community of Hueyactepec, abandoned in the wake of 16th C. diseases ( Table 3). After some disintegration of terraces, the area was restored to cultivation once again during the Colonial period, but this time by means of metepantles. By the 18th C. farming was in the hands of the laborers of a nearby hacienda. Erosion has washed out many older berms, but their silted up ditches are preserved. The most recent generation of metepantles went out of cultivation in the 1970s, as the estate was turned over to pasture to breed cattle for bullfights. The most commonly cited rationales for building terraces are preventing erosion or improving the retention of water (Donkin, 1979, 34; Doolittle, 2000, 254–64; Wilken, 1987). The stone-faced terraces and the metepantles at La Laguna likely met these functions once developed, but both started out as devices that allowed to reclaim land degraded long ago.

In our view, the main challenge is to find a balance between the rapid development of tourism activities and the preservation of the authentic socio-cultural elements of the ethnic minorities that make the area attractive for tourists in the first place. This research was part of the bilateral scientific project on ‘Land-use change under impact of socio-economic

development and its implications on environmental services in Vietnam’ funded by the Belgian Science Policy (BELSPO) (Grant SPP PS BL/10/V26) and the Vietnamese Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST) (Grant 42/2009/HĐ-NĐT). Patrick Meyfroidt, Isaline Jadin, Francois Clapuyt have provided valuable suggestions for this research project. We are thankful to all ministries and institutions

in Vietnam which provided the necessary data to undertake this research. We also thank village leaders and local people in Sa Pa district for facilitating see more the field data collection, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable input. “
“Excess river sediments can negatively impact both water quality and quantity. Excess sediment loads have been identified as a major cause of impairment (USEPA, 2007). Excess sediment indirectly affects water quality by transporting organic substances through adhesion. Excess sediment PD-0332991 manufacturer has the ability to directly decrease water quality as well. These negative effects include loss of water storage in reservoirs and behind dams (Walling, 2009), altered aquatic habitat (Cooper, 1992, Wood and Armitage, 1997 and Bunn and Arthington, 2002), and altered channel capacity and flooding regimes (Knox, 2006). Often, water quality measures are addressed through the establishment of total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). Sediment currently ranks as the fifth ranking cause of TMDLs, with pathogens listed first under the Clean Water Act (USEPA, 2012). The establishment of sediment TMDLs varies by state, however, with New Jersey, the location of the present study, having zero Rucaparib molecular weight listed rivers, while neighboring Pennsylvania has over 3500 instances of impairments from

sediment listed. The TMDL sets a benchmark for water quality criteria. In order to establish a benchmark, an understanding of source of the pollutant is often necessary (Collins et al., 2012a). Identifying the source of excess river sediment is critical for mitigation efforts. A background, or natural, amount of sediment in rivers exists as fluvial systems transport water and sediment across the landscape as part of the larger hydrologic and geologic systems. Human activities, however, alter and accelerate these natural processes. Knowing the origin of the excess sediment facilitates development of proper mitigation efforts. In many cases, sediment from a watershed can be categorized as originating from shallow, surficial sources or from deeper sources.

, 2005 and Gunaydin et al., 2010) to toxicity (Gradinaru et al., 2008, Gradinaru et al., 2010 and Zhao et al., 2008) to challenges linked to light delivery in vivo (Aravanis et al., 2007 and Adamantidis et al., 2007). A long process of tool engineering and substantial development of enabling technologies was required over the next several years. The key properties of these microbial optogenetic tools relate to the ecology of their original host organisms, learn more which respond to the environment using seven-transmembrane proteins encoded by the type I

class of opsin gene (Yizhar et al., 2011b). Type I opsins are protein products of microbial opsin genes and are termed rhodopsins when bound to retinal. However, in typical heterologous expression experiments the precise composition of retinoid-bound states is uncharacterized.

Therefore in the setting of neuroscience application, the tools are conservatively referred to as opsins (a more accurate and convenient shorthand for common use, since only “opsin” correctly applies to the genes as well as to the protein products). These proteins are distinguished from their see more mammalian (type II) counterparts, in that they are single-component light-sensing systems; the two operations—light sensing and ion conductance—are carried out by the same protein. The first identified, and still by far the best studied, type I protein is the haloarchaeal proton pump bacteriorhodopsin (BR; Figure 1A; Oesterhelt and Stoeckenius, 1971, Oesterhelt and Stoeckenius, 1973 and Racker and Stoeckenius, 1974). Under low-oxygen conditions, BR is highly expressed in haloarchaeal membranes and serves as part of an alternative energy-production system, pumping protons from the cytoplasm to the extracellular medium to generate a proton-motive force to drive ATP synthesis (Racker and Stoeckenius, 1974 and Michel and Oesterhelt, 1976). These light-gated proton pumps have since

also been found in a wide range of marine proteobacteria as well as in other kingdoms of life, where they employ similar photocycles (Béjà et al., 2001 and Váró et al., 2003) and have been hypothesized to play diverse roles in cellular (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate physiology (Fuhrman et al., 2008). A second class of microbial opsin genes encodes halorhodopsins (Figure 1A). Halorhodopsin (HR) is a light-activated chloride pump first discovered in archaebacteria (Matsuno-Yagi and Mukohata, 1977). The operating principles of halorhodopsin (HR) are similar to those of BR (Essen, 2002), with the two main differences being that halorhodopsin pumps chloride ions and its direction of transport is from the extracellular to the intracellular space. Specific amino acid residues have been shown to underlie the differences between BR and HR in directionality and preferred cargo ion (Sasaki et al., 1995).

First, SNPs in complement genes do not predict progression of dry AMD (Klein et al., 2010 and Scholl et al., 2009). Second, complement deposition is not prominent in GA eyes (J.A., unpublished data; Hageman, personal communication). Finally, RPE cells are extremely resistant to complement-induced cell death (J.A., unpublished data; Dean Bok, personal communication) except when their rich

cache of negative complement regulators is simultaneously antagonized or learn more depleted (Lueck et al., 2011). However, such strategies may not be representative of the disease state as there is no apparent reduction in expression of these negative regulators with aging or in AMD (Lincoln Johnson, personal communication). Indeed, in a recent clinical trial, there was no benefit of an anti-C5 antibody in reducing drusen or expansion of GA (C.A.A.G. Filho et al., 2012, Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, conf.). The rationale for ongoing clinical trials investigating complement inhibition appears to rest primarily with genetic association; robust preclinical experimentation is still

required to resolve the ostensibly therapeutic effect of complement inhibition for dry AMD. With respect to complement inhibition for the treatment of CNV, this strategy may have a dual Nutlin-3 research buy mechanism of action: reduction in secretion of VEGF-A by RPE or inhibiting the retinal infiltration of proangiogenic leukocytes (Nozaki et al., 2006). Several studies show that a variety of anticomplement agents reduce CNV in animal models of disease Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (Bora et al., 2007, Nozaki et al., 2006 and Rohrer et al., 2009). There are

plans to test the safety of one complement inhibitor (POT-4) in a phase I clinical trial in patients with CNV (NCT 00473928). In summary, complement inhibitors suppress CNV in animal models of disease, thus supporting clinical investigation of their use in humans. A SNP in the gene coding for the dsRNA sensor toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) was initially reported to be associated with protection against developing GA (Yang et al., 2008). However, this association was not confirmed in other studies. Genetic association or not, TLR3 knockout mice are protected against RPE degeneration caused by exogenous dsRNA ( Kleinman et al., 2012) or by accumulation of all-trans retinaldehyde ( Shiose et al., 2011). Certain viruses contain dsRNA genomes, while other viruses may elaborate dsRNA intermediates during their replication cycle. Therefore, it is tempting to speculate that there might be a viral etiology of GA—an underinvestigated area of research in AMD. Another potential source of TLR3 activation in GA could be endogenous mRNA ( Karikó et al., 2004). On the other hand, it is important to recognize that TLR3 stimulation causes CNV suppression ( Kleinman et al., 2008); therefore, although modulation of TLR3 activity shows promise in treating either dry or wet AMD, it also risks potential exacerbation of the other form.

This feature encouraged subjects to form an estimate about the mean and variance of the INCB024360 ic50 individual outcomes and continually update their assumption about the correlation strength.

Subjects participated in three consecutive experimental blocks, each corresponding to a 21 min long session in an fMRI scanner (Siemens Trio 3T). They were instructed that the correlation would probabilistically change over the course of the study but were not given further details about specific parameters used. We also told subjects that the mean and variance of the two resources would remain constant over one block of the experiment, a simplification to an otherwise quite complex task that enabled subjects to perform well within the settings of this experiment. As our goal was to assess covariance learning (in contrast to learning the values and risk) this did not adversely impact on any mechanism we wanted to observe. However, mean and variance values were different for each block. To give subjects the

opportunity to learn these basic statistical parameters (mean and variance) before making portfolio choices, we presented them with a 20-trial observation phase at the beginning of each session. In this phase, which immediately preceded the start of fMRI data acquisition, subjects only observed the individual outcomes of the two resources and did not make any choices. There was no change in the GPCR Compound Library order ground truth correlation during this phase. Data from pilot studies and Acesulfame Potassium model simulations confirmed that 20 observations of a time series were sufficient to form an estimate of its mean and variance. The observation phase was followed by 84 choice trials, consisting of a 5 s choice period and a 3 s outcome period, separated by a blank gray screen of 1–6 s duration (uniform distribution). The

intertrial-interval was also 1–6 s (Figure 1A). The portfolio weights (wsun, wwind) indicate how much of a fraction the portfolio contains from both resources rsun and rwind (portfolio outcome value Vp = wsun∗rsun + wwind∗rwind). Subjects were allowed to set the portfolio weight wsun within a range between −1 and 2. Setting negative weights allowed subjects to trade-in a fraction of the trials output from one resource in exchange for multiplying the other output by the same fraction. This concept echoes the possibility of short selling in financial markets and is important for this task as it permits risk minimizing for positively correlated resources (see the section on variance minimizing strategies in the Supplemental Information for further details). The constraint that both weights always add up to 1 automatically determined the weight of the other resource (wwind = 1 − wsun). A horizontal line on the choice screen represented the slider during the choice period and icons of a solar and wind plant on both ends indicated which resources were mixed in the portfolio.

5-E9.5) in order to label early expressing Dlx1/2 precursors with GFP in the embryos. For simplification purposes GFP expressing mice pups originating from these gavaged females are named tamoxifen-treated Dlx1/2CreERTM;RCE:LoxP. Similarly, pregnant females crossed with Mash1BACCreER/CreER/ RCE:LoxP+/+ males were gavaged at E18.5, in order to label late expressing Mash1 precursors in the embryos named Mash1CreERTM;RCE:LoxP mice. To assess the temporal precision of EGins labeling, we performed six injections FRAX597 supplier of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine

(BrdU, 10 mg/ml in PBS) every 4 hr, starting 6 hr after pregnant mice were force-fed with tamoxifen at E9.5 (50 μg/g intraperitoneally [i.p.]). In another set of experiments, BrdU was injected 31 hr after tamoxifen force-feeding to check that tamoxifen action does not extend over 24 hr. Sections from E12.5 embryos were immunoreacted for both

GFP and BrdU as detailed in Figure S1. Similar results were obtained when tamoxifen was force-fed at E7.5 or E9.5 (Figure S1). Horizontal hippocampal slices (380 μm thick) were prepared from 5- to 7-day-old (P5–P7) tamoxifen-treated Dlx1/2CreERTM;RCE:LoxP (n = 56 slices) or Mash1CreERTM;RCE:LoxP (n = 39 slices) mouse pups with a Leica VT1200 S vibratome using the Vibrocheck module in ice-cold Trichostatin A in vivo oxygenated modified artificial cerebrospinal fluid (0.5 mM CaCl2 and 7 mM MgSO4; NaCl replaced by an equimolar concentration of choline). Slices were then transferred for rest (1 hr) in oxygenated normal ACSF containing (in mM): 126 NaCl, 3.5 KCl, 1.2 NaH2PO4, 26 NaHCO3, 1.3 MgCl2, 2.0 CaCl2, and 10 D-glucose, pH 7.4. For AM-loading, slices were incubated in a small vial containing 2.5 ml of oxygenated ACSF with 25 μl of a 1 mM Fura2-AM solution (in 100% DMSO) for 20–30 min. Slices were incubated in the dark, and the incubation solution was maintained at 35°–37°C. Slices were perfused with continuously aerated (3 ml/min; O2/CO2-95/5%) normal ACSF at 35°C–37°C.

Imaging was performed with a multibeam multiphoton pulsed laser scanning system (LaVision Biotech) coupled to a microscope as previously described ( Crépel et al., 2007). Images were acquired either through a CCD camera, which typically resulted in a time resolution of 50–150 ms per frame. Slices were imaged using a 20×, NA 0.95 objective (Olympus). Imaging depth was on average 80 μm below the surface (range: 50–100 μm). A total of 121 neurons were recorded: 65 were recorded only for morphophysiological characterization in adult slices, whereas 56 were recorded while imaging. Out of the latter, only 32 were considered. The other experiments (n = 24) were discarded because they did not comply either one of the following criteria: (1) stable electrophysiological recordings at resting membrane potential (i.e., the holding current did not change by more than 15 pA); (2) stable network dynamics measured with calcium imaging (i.e.

Figure 4A illustrates the responses Apoptosis inhibitor to slow-moving spots (200 μm/s) measured in control conditions, illustrating the preferred direction toward the temporal pole. Remarkably, responses in this cell remained DS after the cocktail of antagonists was applied (Figure 4B). Although less robust than control DS responses,

spike rates in the preferred direction were more than double those evoked in the null direction (Figure 4C; control DSI: 0.64 ± 0.07 and 0.63 ± 0.09 for ON and OFF responses, respectively; DSI in blockers: 0.40 ± 0.06 and 0.35 ± 0.04 for ON and OFF responses, respectively; p < 0.05 for both ON and OFF; n = 11). In addition, the direction of the preferred response was always maintained (Figure 4D; average deviation of the preferred direction was −20° ±

10° compared to control for ON responses and −1° ± 17° for OFF responses; p > 0.2, Moore’s paired-sample test). Together, these results demonstrate a form of directional selectivity that does not critically rely upon, but is in alignment with, the classic inhibitory DS Ribociclib mw circuitry. The DS responses observed in the presence of GABAA receptor blockers were surprising considering the abundant literature supporting a critical role for inhibition in mediating directional selectivity (Wyatt and Day, 1976, Caldwell et al., 1978 and Taylor and Vaney, 2002). Even in previous studies where directionally selective responses were detectable under saturating concentrations of inhibitory blockers, they were relatively mild (Smith et al., 1996 and Grzywacz et al., 1997).

Because we had performed our initial experiments at relatively slow stimulus speeds, we next tested the effects of varying speed on DSI, in an attempt to reconcile our findings with previous work. In control conditions, increasing the stimulus speed resulted in an click here increased spike rate for null and preferred stimuli and led to a mild decrease in DSI at the high range of speeds tested (100–2400 μm/s; Figure 5A). Application of the cocktail of antagonists augmented spiking responses for both preferred and null directions, though null-direction responses tended to show much greater augmentation, confirming that inhibitory circuit mechanisms usually suppressed these responses (data not shown). In the presence of blockers, at the slower speeds, null-direction responses always remained lower than those elicited in the preferred direction, and consequently, responses remained DS (Figure 5B). However, as the stimulus speed was increased, DSI declined. By 1000 μm/s, directional selectivity was weak and only detected in a few cells, but on average was not statistically significant (ON DSI: 0.50 ± 0.08 in control compared to 0.05 ± 0.02 in blockers; p < 0.005; OFF DSI: 0.57 ± 0.07 compared to 0.06 ± 0.09 in blockers; p < 0.005; n = 11). At speeds higher than 1000 μm/s, DS responses were never observed.