9 The currently accepted model stipulates GSI-IX datasheet that alcohol-induced enhancement of gut permeability to bacterial LPS/endotoxin increases the translocation of endotoxin to the liver that activates Kupffer cells after binding to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).8, 10 Alcohol also sensitizes Kupffer cells to LPS by increasing

oxidative stress and primes Kupffer cells to respond to LPS by up-regulating a number of proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines and chemokines, as well as their cognate receptors.11, 12 Among the panel of secreted cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is considered as a major mediator of alcohol-induced liver injury, as shown in a number of clinical studies,8, 13 and on the basis of experimental data demonstrating the substantial reduction of hepatic steatosis, as well as liver inflammation and injury, in TNF-R1 deficient mice and in rats treated with TNF-α antibodies.14, 15 These findings have prompted an evaluation of the effect of TNF-α antibody treatment in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis, an entity associated with elevated see more short-term mortality. Unfortunately, direct blockade of TNF-α has proved deleterious, owing to a high rate of infectious events in these patients.16 Therefore, other strategies need to be envisioned, and interventional tools able to favor the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype

in the liver warrant consideration as potential protective agents for the management of alcohol-induced liver injury. Cannabinoid CB2 receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors predominantly expressed by cells of the immune system, including macrophages. These receptors are constituent elements of an endocannabinoid system with pleiotropic effects that also comprise CB1 receptors, highly lipophilic ligands known as endocannabinoids, and mediators responsible for their synthesis, metabolism, and catabolism.17, 18 A number of studies have demonstrated that CB2 receptors display potent

anti-inflammatory GNE-0877 properties, although proinflammatory effects have occasionally been described.17, 19, 20 Thus, CB2 receptors reduce inflammation in models of atherosclerosis21 and in a variety of neuroinflammatory disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.22 In addition, in vitro studies have shown that CB2-receptor activation impairs several macrophage functions, such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced inflammatory response, oxidative stress, migration, and antigen processing.22 In the liver, recent data indicate that CB2 receptors are induced after acute or chronic injury, both in Kupffer cells and in liver fibrogenic cells.23-25 Remarkably, endogenous activation of these receptors has been shown to limit liver injury in several instances.