All three patients who received these surgical interventions reached full recovery from fungal

pleural infections (two due to Aspergillus spp.). In summary, drainage with chest tubes and in some cases surgical (thoracoscopic) debridement is indicated in Aspergillus pleural empyema, which occurs mostly after pneumonectomies.[86-91] Aspergillus arthritis is a rare clinical disease most frequently present in immunocompromised patients. Knee and shoulder are the joints most frequently affected; however, the wrist and sacroiliac joint have also been reported. The infection of selleck screening library joints by Aspergillus spp. is caused mostly by haematogenous spread in disseminated IA; however, cases have been reported after medical injections into the joint.[57] Contamination and infection during surgery have also been reported in patients without underlying immunosuppression or other predisposing risk factors. Diagnostic imaging, such as magnetic resonance imaging which can show bone marrow oedema, should be performed early. Positron emission tomography-computed tomography may show uptake of 18-Fluoro-deoxiglucose (standard uptake value 9.0 against

the contralateral side 1.5) in the suspected joint, confirming the presence of articular and extra-articular inflammation. Clinical presentation consists of pain, swelling and instability in the affected joint. Drainage selleck products should be performed to gain synovial fluid for diagnostic methods. While debridement Paclitaxel and drainage are indicated in Aspergillus arthritis, joint replacement can only be recommended in selected cases.[92-94, 94-100] Steinfeld et al. [99] reported of two cases of Aspergillus arthritis of the knee that were managed by surgical intervention after the poor response to antifungal therapy alone. Arthroscopic debridement with a motorised shaver was performed and both patients showed good response. In immunocompetent patients with Aspergillus arthritis, antifungal therapy without surgical intervention has been reported to result in full recovery.[96]

In Aspergillus prosthetic joint infection change of prosthesis may help to save the extremity.[100, 101] Aspergillus skin and soft-tissue infections primarily occur in immunocompromised patients. However, primary cutaneous aspergillosis has recently also been reported on a tattoo in an immunocompetent patient who underwent home tattooing.[102] In immunocompromised patients, IA can manifest in skin and soft tissue, either as primary cutaneous Aspergillus infection or as secondary cutaneous manifestations of an underlying disseminated Aspergillus infection. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis mostly arises around intravenous line site, burns, bruises or surgical wounds, which represent potential ports of entry in patients with neutropenia.