Areca nut, the major component of betel quid, is considered carcinogenic [11]. Treatment of areca nut extract (ANE) increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and caused morphological alterations such as retraction and autophagosome-like vacuoles in cultured cells [12] and [13]. In contrast, we recently discovered that ANE caused ballooning and pyknosis under serum starvation [14]. By inducing miR-23a, ANE reduced Fanconi anemia group G protein (FANCG) and impeded double-strand break (DSB) DNA repair [15]. ANE also impaired cytokinesis and induced micronuclei in Chinese

hamster ovary (CHO) cells [16]. Induction of cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) by ANE in peripheral blood mononuclear NLG919 molecular weight cells might partially contribute to the mucosa inflammatory infiltration [17]. Among the identified compounds BMS-754807 chemical structure of areca nut, arecoline had been proven genotoxic and might contribute to oral carcinogenesis by facilitating error-prone DNA replication [18]. Areca nut-derived oligomericprocyanidins had also been demonstrated to induce apoptosis in human lymphocytes [19]. Betel quid chewing is associated with various alterations in oral mucosa. It remains obscure how so many different alterations such as deregulated epithelial growth and the adjacent ulcerative inflammation are induced. Under normal condition (10% FBS), however, these alterations could not be easily simulated in

cultured cells. In this study we aim to build a model for studying the cytopathic effects of ANE in oral cells that may facilitate mechanism research in the future. OC2, an oral squamous

cell carcinoma cell line derived from a Taiwanese man with habits of drinking, smoking, and areca nut chewing, was maintained in RPMI1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. The other oral cancer cell line SAS were maintained in DMEM with similar supplements. Cells were routinely kept in a 37 °C incubator supplied with 5% CO2 and subcultured every two to three days. Twelve to sixteen hours after seeding, experiments were performed soon after medium refreshing when cell confluence was about 70-90% except for the morphological tests (30-40%). For low serum culture, cells were washed twice with and cultured in medium containing no FBS or 1% FBS immediately before treatment. Areca nut extract (ANE) was prepared find more from fresh nuts. In brief, the nuts were chopped into about 0.5-1 cm3 dices by a blender and the water-soluble ingredients were extracted at 4 °C overnight. The supernatant was harvested and concentrated by -70 °C lyophilisation. The powder derived from water extract was weighed, re-dissolved in ddH2O, and stored at -20 °C before experimental use. Wortmannin, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), acridine orange (AO), propidium iodide (PI), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). NF-κB inhibitor quinazoline (QNZ) was from Cayman (Ann Arbor, MC, USA).