Failure to mount this protective Th2 response exacerbates infection (11,12). Leishmania spp. are obligate intracellular parasites that cause a wide range of diseases such as cutaneous, mucocutaneous

and visceral leishmaniasis and worldwide an estimated 12 million people are infected (13). The murine model of cutaneous L. major infection has been well characterized and results in a localized cutaneous lesion whose resolution depends on the development of IL-12-induced Th1 response and production of IFN-γ. Initiation of a Th2-type response, characterized by the production of IL-4 and IL-10 as found Ridaforolimus cost in susceptible BALB/c mice, in contrast, is associated with the development of large non-healing lesions after L. major infection (14–17).

As Th1 and Th2 responses are counterregulatory, we investigated the interaction of these two parasites in vivo by co-infecting C57BL/6 mice with S. ratti and L. major and comparing disease progression, parasite-specific humoral as well as cellular immune response in the lymph nodes (LN) draining the sites of infection. We show that concurrent S. ratti infection did not interfere with the efficient control of L. major infection in C57BL/6 mice. Also, the Th2 response induced by S. ratti infection did not alter the Th1 biased responses to L. major. In contrast, the Th1 response induced click here by L. major resulted in partial suppression of S. ratti-induced Th2 response in the mesenteric LN draining the gut. Control Sulfite dehydrogenase of S. ratti infection, however, was not significantly impaired. Taken together, co-existence of the two parasites within the same host modulated the immune response to each species to a certain degree without affecting parasite clearance. All in vivo experiments were carried out at the animal facility of the Bernhard-Nocht-Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, with permission of the Federal Health Authorities of the state of Hamburg, Germany. Female C57BL/6 mice were obtained from the University Hospital Eppendorf, and wistar rats were purchased from

Charles River (Sulzfeld, Germany). Animals were kept in individually ventilated cages and used at the age of 8–12 weeks (mice) or 4–8 weeks (rats). The S. ratti life cycle was kindly provided by Dr. Utzinger (Swiss Tropical Institute) and maintained by serial passage of S. ratti through wistar rats. iL3 of S. ratti were purified from charcoal faeces cultures as described before (5). Prior to infection, iL3 were stored overnight in PBS supplemented with penicillin (100 U/mL) and streptomycin (100 μg/mL). Strongyloides antigen lysate was prepared as described (10). The cloned virulent L. major isolate (MHOM/IL/81/FE/BNI) was propagated in vitro in blood agar cultures as described previously (18). To prepare L. major parasites for infection experiments, stationary phase promastigotes from the third to seventh in vitro passage were harvested, washed four times and resuspended in sterile PBS.