However, all the studied strains were selleck compound isolated from permanent residents of the country and it is reasonable to assume that an identical spoligotyping profile (ST125) reflects common ancestry; consequently, this validates the VNTR-based approach to reconstruct the phylogeny of these strains. Minimum spanning tree of the

ST125 VNTR-based subtypes and comparison with their geographic distribution in Bulgaria revealed a controversially enigmatic phylogeographic pattern (Fig. 3) that may be outlined as follows: first, subtype ST125/T1, both the largest and the core type, includes strain ST4 (Fig. 2). Hence, T1 is likely an ancestral variant of ST125 that, as we hypothesized above, originated from ST4 by a deletion of a single spacer #40. Second, Haskovo, a city in the southern Bulgaria, features the highest prevalence and the highest VNTR diversity of ST125 while several local ST125 subclones are circulating here (Figs 2 and 3). Third, the largest and ancestral type T1 includes strains from all over the country, except for Haskovo. A highest heterogeneity implies longer evolutionary history/clonal dissemination, and logically, one would expect to see the likely ancestral and altogether

most numerous subtype T1 in ST125 strains from Haskovo. This is not observed and this situation leads to a controversy. It should also be noted that GDC-0199 order certain types, T8, T11 and T12, all including strains from Haskovo, are separated from the nearest neighbor type T1 by long branches due to changes in three to

four loci; apparently, this implies their origin not directly from type T1, but rather reflects missing strains. This observation also underlines the high diversity of the ST125 subpopulation in Haskovo (i.e. in southern Bulgaria). The following speculative explanations of these findings are possible. The spoligotype ST125 may have emerged in southern Bulgaria from ST4, which was followed by (i) occasional dissemination of the ancestral-type ST125/T1 across Bulgaria; (ii) Celecoxib continuing locally delimited long-term evolution of the relatively large population of ST125/T1 in southern Bulgaria and generation of new progeny variants; (iii) drastic reduction of the ST125/T1 subpopulation in Haskovo due to a hypothetical bottleneck driven by unknown human demographic events (still maintaining a high rate of ST125 in Haskovo); and (iv) further evolution of ST125 subtypes in Haskovo from a new secondary ancestor type T5. The possibility that serial M. tuberculosis population bottlenecks could have occurred during past human migrations has been highlighted recently (Hershberg et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2009). Unfortunately, no detailed data have been published on the migration between Bulgarian regions and available data on Bulgarian demography are not sufficient to explain the above hypothetic scenario.