Oil and gas exploration has increased in the BHS. Since early 2010, at least four vessels have conducted seismic surveys for

seabed oil and gas deposits in Raja Ampat, close to Kofiau, Salawati and Misool Islands. These large specialized ships tow cables that fire airgun blasts/sound waves at the seabed to elucidate underwater geological formations and structures. Cyclopamine Potential impacts from unregulated seismic surveys include disturbance to migratory species such as cetaceans and turtles which can become displaced (McCauley et al., 2000), lethal and sub-lethal effects on adult fish, fish larvae or fish eggs (Hirst and Rodhouse, 2000), and negative impacts to community fisheries (Skalski et al., 1992 and Hirst and Rodhouse, 2000). Although the vessels had licenses from the national government, the surveys were conducted within 4 nautical miles of the coast without the approval of the provincial or regency governments, and without public consultation or adherence to international standards. This issue highlights the lack of coordination between national, provincial

and regency governments in the energy sector. Deforestation and coastal this website development have escalated over the last 10 years in the BHS, and are leading to yet unmeasured, but nonetheless observable impacts on watersheds, coastlines and marine environments (Fig. 10). Highly erodible soils, very steep slopes and high rainfall (Fig. 3) in the BHS makes coastal habitats Adenosine (particularly shallow

coral reefs), more vulnerable to damage from land based activities. One or more authors are aware of impacts from deforestation and poorly planned coastal development including: (a) run-off of topsoil to beaches and marine habitats causing smothering of coral and soft-sediment communities; (b) loss of mangroves due to road construction and logging; (c) direct loss of critical habitat for threatened species (e.g. green, hawksbill, and leatherback turtles, estuarine crocodiles, and Wilson’s Bird of Paradise Cicinnurus respublica) through beach modification and coastal vegetation removal; (d) direct loss of coral reefs through reclamation; (e) altered salinity and temperature profiles at river mouths due to interrupted water flow; and (f) introduction of invasive species to forests. It has been estimated that 85% of Papua is still covered with intact forests (GRM International, 2009). However, most of the lowland forests have been designated for logging and agriculture. There is extensive logging in the Bomberai Peninsula between Fakfak and Kaimana, and the Wandammen Peninsula in Cendrawasih Bay (M.V. Erdmann, personal observations). As far back as 2002, illegal logging has been taking place on the islands of Waigeo and Batanta in Raja Ampat, including in three gazetted nature reserves (McKenna et al., 2002) and appears to be increasing as infrastructure improves to support the capital of Raja Ampat. In addition, the Indonesian government is committed to establish 5.